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{{hatnote|This article is chiefly about films made during the "cannibal boom" of the 1970s and 1980s. For other films, see also [[Cannibalism in popular culture]].}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2022}}

'''Cannibal films''', alternatively known as the '''cannibal genre''' or the '''cannibal boom''', are a subgenre of [[horror films]] made predominantly by [[cinema of Italy|Italian filmmakers]] during the 1970s and 1980s. This subgenre is a collection of graphically violent movies that usually depict [[human cannibalism|cannibalism]] by primitive, [[Stone Age]] [[Indigenous peoples|natives]] deep within the Asian or South American rainforests. While cannibalism is the uniting feature of these films, the general emphasis focuses on various forms of shocking, realistic and graphic violence, typically including [[torture]], [[rape]] and genuine [[cruelty to animals]]. This subject matter was often used as the main advertising draw of cannibal films in combination with exaggerated or [[Sensationalism|sensational]] claims regarding the films' reputations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-02 |title=The History of Cannibalism in the Horror Genre |url=https://theliberatormagazine.com/2023/03/02/the-history-of-cannibalism-in-the-horror-genre/ |access-date=2025-04-17 |website=The Liberator Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

The genre evolved in the early 1970s from a similar subgenre known as [[mondo film]]s, exploitation documentaries which claimed to present genuine [[taboo]] behaviors from around the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wardinski |first=Nathan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3H_EAAAQBAJ&q=mondo |title=Dissecting Cannibal Holocaust |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-6669-1403-0 |language=en}}</ref> [[Umberto Lenzi]] is often cited as originating the cannibal genre with his 1972 film ''[[Man from the Deep River|Man from Deep River]]'', while Antonio Climati's ''[[Natura contro]]'' from 1988 is similarly regarded to have brought the trend to a close.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Jennifer|title=Cannibalism in Literature and Film|date=January 2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36051-8}}</ref> [[Ruggero Deodato]]'s ''[[Cannibal Holocaust]]'', released in 1980,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chapman |first=Wilson |date=2024-04-18 |title=The Best Cannibal Films of All Time: ‘Silence of the Lambs,’ ‘Raw,’ and More |url=https://www.indiewire.com/feature/best-cannibal-movies-93276/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=IndieWire |language=en-US}}</ref> is often considered to be the best-known film of the genre due to the significant controversy surrounding its release, and is one of the few films of the genre to garner mainstream attention. In recent years, the genre has experienced a [[cult following]] and revival, as new productions influenced by the original wave of films have been released.

Due to their graphic content, the films of this subgenre are often the center of controversy, and many have been censored or banned in countries around the world. The animal cruelty featured in many of the films is often the focal point of the controversy, and these scenes have been targeted by certain countries' film boards. Several cannibal films also appeared on the [[video nasty]] list released by the [[Director of Public Prosecutions (England and Wales)|Director of Public Prosecutions]] in 1983 in the [[United Kingdom]]. Nonetheless, the genre has occasionally fallen under favorable or more positive critical interpretation, and certain cannibal films have been noted for containing themes of [[anti-imperialism]] and critiques or commentary on [[Third World]] oppression and exploitation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999-12-01 |title=Natura e cultura, fine di una controversia |url=https://www.lescienze.it/archivio/articoli/1999/12/01/news/natura_e_cultura_fine_di_una_controversia-547339/ |access-date=2025-04-17 |website=Le Scienze |language=it}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}}
The plots of cannibal films usually involved Western characters entering the Amazon or South East Asian rainforests on an expedition, only to encounter hostile natives on the way to their destination. Other films that are sometimes associated with the genre, such as ''[[Cannibal Apocalypse]]'' and ''[[We're Going to Eat You]]'', do not follow this plotline. The films are known for their lurid content, such as sex, nudity and various forms of graphic violence. [[Sexual assault]], torture, and the on-screen depiction of cannibalism are also common, and these acts are performed by both the Westerners and the natives.

The films' advertising focused on the presentation of this content rather than any critical acclaim. This form of advertising was sometimes accompanied by claims regarding the film's notoriety. For instance, the posters for ''[[Cannibal Ferox]]'' claimed that the film was banned in 31 countries, while the British home video cover for ''[[Eaten Alive!]]'' similarly noted that the film was previously banned in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Koimoi com |date=2024-12-20 |title=Did You Know This Horror Flick Holds Guinness World Record For Being Among The Most Banned Movies? |url=https://www.koimoi.com/hollywood-news/did-you-know-this-horror-flick-holds-guinness-world-record-for-being-among-the-most-banned-movies/ |access-date=2025-04-17 |website=Koimoi |language=en-US}}</ref>

==History==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2022}}
Films containing elements similar to cannibal films existed before the genre's inception. Rainforest adventure films were often found popular in cinema (such as with the [[Tarzan]] movies of the 1930s and 1940s starring [[Johnny Weissmuller]]). Some of these films even included primitive, and in some cases, alleged cannibal tribes, and could be seen as the prototype for the modern cannibal film. One movie that can almost be definitively linked as the predecessor to the cannibal genre is [[Cornel Wilde]]'s 1965 film ''[[The Naked Prey]]'', which involved a white man being chased by a tribe of natives because his safari group offended their chief.

Another influential film on this genre was the 1970 [[Richard Harris]] western ''[[A Man Called Horse (film)|A Man Called Horse]]'' which, although it involved non-cannibalistic Native Americans, was about a civilized white man being captured by, and forced to live with, a tribe of savages, during which time he comes to respect, and strives to join, his captors. The basic plot of ''Man from Deep River'' is an almost scene-for-scene swipe from that film, merely substituting rainforest cannibals for the Native Americans. This film, created to imitate the famous 1970 Richard Harris western, would wind up becoming the template for what would later become the Italian ''cannibal film'' genre.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Americana: The Journal of American Popular Culture (1900-present) |url=https://americanpopularculture.com/journal/articles/spring_2020/phillips.htm |access-date=2025-04-17 |website=americanpopularculture.com}}</ref>

<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:CannibalferoxDVDscan.jpg|thumb|left|The now [[out of print]] Grindhouse Releasing DVD cover of ''Cannibal Ferox'', another notorious and controversial cannibal film]] -->
The subgenre as it is known today is usually regarded to have started with Italian director [[Umberto Lenzi]]'s 1972 film ''Man from Deep River''. It was released in New York City as ''Sacrifice!'', and was a [[42nd Street (Manhattan)|42nd Street]] hit.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Landis | first=Bill | title=Make Them Die Slowly | publisher=Grindhouse Releasing}}</ref> This film inspired several other similar films to be made during the late 1970s, a period identified by genre fans as the "cannibal boom".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.savagecinema.com/cannibalholocaust.html | title=Savage Cinema | author=David Carter | publisher=Savage Cinema | access-date=2006-09-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402122835/http://www.savagecinema.com/cannibalholocaust.html | archive-date=2017-04-02 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Included in these films are [[Ruggero Deodato]]'s 1977 film ''[[Ultimo mondo cannibale]]'' (a.k.a. ''Last Cannibal World'', a.k.a. ''Jungle Holocaust''), Sergio Martino's 1978 film ''[[The Mountain of the Cannibal God]]'' and a few films by [[Joe D'Amato]] starring [[Laura Gemser]]. However, Deodato also claims to be the forefather of the subgenre, with his film ''Ultimo mondo cannibale''. Lenzi said in an interview for Calum Waddell's documentary ''Eaten Alive! The Rise and Fall of the Italian Cannibal Film'':

{{blockquote|Well, Mr. Ruggero Deodato, my "dear friend", says that he invented this genre. He says that I copied him because he had done ''Last Cannibal World'' and then ''Cannibal Holocaust''. However, it is actually down to me that he did those films. It was down to me because after I filmed ''Man from Deep River'', which was called ''Mondo Cannibale'' in Germany and did very well, the producer then signed another contract with the German distributors. It gave them an 80% guarantee based on another cannibal film directed by Umberto Lenzi and starring [[Me Me Lai]] and [[Ivan Rassimov]]. The producer signed this contract and he was at my house for dinner expecting me to do another film like the one we had just done and telling me how he had sold it to the Germans. I said okay, fine, but as the film did so well, I want to be paid exactly double of what I was given before. He refused, saying it was too much and so on. I said okay, good luck to you. Plus I was already signed up with Dania Film to do ''[[Almost Human (1974 film)|Almost Human]]''. So what the producer did, so as not to void the contract with the Germans, was to change directors, stating I was ill or something. But he kept Me Me Lai and Ivan Rassimov. But Rassimov had a smaller part now. Nevertheless, both of them remained as part of this contract. So it was down to me that he [Deodato] got to do ''Last Cannibal World''. It was me that said no. So he did it instead. However, if I had accepted it, like the contract stated, maybe he would never have done a cannibal film.<ref name=eatenalive>{{cite AV media|author=Calum Waddell|title=Eaten Alive! The Rise and Fall of the Italian Cannibal Film|date=2015}}</ref>}}

In response, Deodato, being interviewed for the same film, stated:

{{blockquote|I think the forefather of the cannibal genre was me. I had not seen Umberto Lenzi's movie ''Man from Deep River''. So my film, ''Last Cannibal World'', really originated, and was written to start this whole cannibal trend. I studied a lot of books on the subject and documented some of it from ''[[National Geographic]]'' magazine as well. I also looked closely at the ritualism of cannibalism and I don't believe Lenzi did that with his film. Maybe Lenzi did it after I made ''Last Cannibal World''. You know, when he went on to do ''Cannibal Ferox'' [in 1981]. He didn't do it first, that's for sure. When I finally saw his film, it was more of a copy of ''A Man Called Horse''.<ref name=eatenalive/>}}

A large number of cannibal films were made in 1980, making it the most successful year for the genre. In February 1980, [[Ruggero Deodato]] released ''Cannibal Holocaust'', probably the best-known of all the cannibal films. [[Luigi Cozzi]] has said: "to me, the real beginning of the cannibal genre is ''Cannibal Holocaust''. It was a legitimate success at the box office, but not in Italy as it was banned, blocked and withheld. They distributed it at a later date, but it was dead by then. However, it did astonishing business abroad."<ref name=eatenalive/> Its graphic and unrelenting violence and exploitation brought it significant attention. Despite this (or perhaps ''because'' of this), ''Cannibal Holocaust'' was an enormous success; it is sometimes claimed to have accumulated a $200,000,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] worldwide box-office gross, though this has not been verified and the true gross may never be known.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078935/trivia | title=Trivia for Cannibal Holocaust | website=The Internet Movie Database | access-date=2006-10-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://home.clara.net/raydav/paradisecinema_cannibal_holocaust.html | title=Cannibal Holocaust (1978). Paradise Cinema | author=Giovanni Pistachio | publisher=Paradise Cinema | access-date=2006-10-19 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040410093034/http://home.clara.net/raydav/paradisecinema_cannibal_holocaust.html | archive-date=2004-04-10 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Umberto Lenzi would also contribute to the genre in 1980 with ''Eaten Alive!'', and again in 1981 with the notorious ''Cannibal Ferox'', but by then, however, the genre was beginning to fade, and only a few other obscurities were made until [[Mondo film|Mondo]] [[film director]] Antonio Climati was considered to have put an end to the genre in 1988 with the film ''Natura contro'', which was also released as an unofficial sequel to ''Cannibal Holocaust'' (it has an alternative title of ''Cannibal {{nowrap|Holocaust II}}''). Other similar films were made with a direct-to-video release afterward, most notably the films by horror director [[Bruno Mattei]].

The genre is heavily indebted to [[Mondo film|mondo cinema]], which similarly aimed to shock audiences with exotic customs and graphic violence. A common premise of the cannibal films is that mondo filmmakers (as in ''Cannibal Holocaust'') or [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] (as in ''Cannibal Ferox'') from a "civilized" country enter a jungle and run afoul of cannibalistic natives. Ironically, many have an [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] slant to them, as in the films, the "civilized" Westerners are the first to perpetrate extreme cruelty and violence upon the natives. The cannibals, in turn, reap revenge by inflicting the same form of barbarism on the Westerners. A few are set in modern urban centers with cannibalism practiced secretly, as in ''[[Emanuelle and the Last Cannibals]]'' and ''[[Zombie Holocaust]]'' (which was the first film to mix the cannibal genre with the then-popular "zombie film").

== Directors ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}}
Several directors of different nationalities have contributed to the genre, but most of them did not make more than one cannibal film each. The major directors to the genre are:

*[[Ruggero Deodato]], with the films ''Ultimo mondo cannibale'', ''[[Cannibal Holocaust]]'' and ''Cut and Run''.
*[[Umberto Lenzi]], with the films ''Man from Deep River'', ''Eaten Alive!'', and ''[[Cannibal Ferox]]''.
*[[Jesús Franco]], with the films ''[[Mondo Cannibale]]'', ''[[Devil Hunter (film)|Devil Hunter]]'', and ''Diamonds of Kilimandjaro''.
*[[Joe D'Amato]], with the films ''Emanuelle and the Last Cannibals'', ''[[Papaya, Love Goddess of the Cannibals]]'' and ''Orgasmo Nero''.

== Actors ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}}
Like directors, few actors are cannibal genre regulars. The three actors who appeared in the most cannibal films were:

*[[Robert Kerman]] in ''Cannibal Holocaust'', ''Eaten Alive!'', and ''Cannibal Ferox''.
*[[Ivan Rassimov]] in ''Man from Deep River'', ''Ultimo mondo cannibale'', and ''Eaten Alive!''.
*[[Me Me Lai]] in ''Man from Deep River'', ''Ultimo mondo cannibale'', and ''Eaten Alive!''.

Other popular cannibal genre actors include: [[Laura Gemser]], an Indonesian model-turned-actress in Italy; [[Perry Pirkanen]], who played Jack Anders in ''Cannibal Holocaust'' and an uncredited role in ''Cannibal Ferox''; [[Carl Gabriel Yorke]], who played Alan Yates in ''Cannibal Holocaust''; [[Giovanni Lombardo Radice]], a mainstream Italian actor whose stage name is John Morghen; and Luigina Rocchi, who played one of the natives who painted Ursula Andress' body in ''The Mountain of the Cannibal God'' and an undetermined role in ''Cannibal Holocaust''.

==Films by year==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! width="250"|Film !! width="150"|Director !! width="40"|Year !! width="250"|Also known as
|-
| ''[[Man from the Deep River]]'' || [[Umberto Lenzi]] || 1972 || ''Il paese del sesso selvaggio'' / ''The Country of Savage Sex''; ''Deep River Savages''; ''The Man From Deep River''; ''Sacrifice!''
|-
| ''[[Emanuelle and the Last Cannibals]]'' || [[Joe D'Amato]] || 1977 ||  ''Emanuelle e gli Ultimi Cannibali''; ''Trap Them and Kill Them''
|-
| ''[[Ultimo mondo cannibale]]'' || [[Ruggero Deodato]] || 1977 || ''Last Cannibal World''; ''Jungle Holocaust''
|-
| ''[[Papaya, Love Goddess of the Cannibals]]'' || [[Joe D'Amato]] || 1978 || ''Papaya dei Caraibi'' 
|-
| ''[[Slave of the Cannibal God]]'' || [[Sergio Martino]] || 1978 || ''La montagna del dio cannibale''; ''Slave of the Cannibal God''; ''Prisoner of the Cannibal God''
|-
| ''[[Antropophagus]]'' || [[Joe D'Amato]] || 1980 || ''Anthropophagus: The Beast''; ''The Savage Island''; ''The Grim Reaper''
|-
| ''[[Cannibal Holocaust]]'' || [[Ruggero Deodato]] || 1980 || ''Holocausto Canibal''
|-
| ''[[Devil Hunter (film)|Devil Hunter]]'' || [[Jesus Franco]] || 1980 || ''Il cacciatore di uomini'' / ''The Man Hunter'';  ''Mandingo Manhunter''
|-
| ''[[Eaten Alive!]]'' || [[Umberto Lenzi]] || 1980 || ''Mangiati vivi!''
|-
| ''[[Mondo Cannibale]]'' || [[Jesus Franco]] || 1980 || ''Cannibal World'';  ''The Cannibals''; ''Cannibals''; ''White Cannibal Queen''; ''Die Blonde Gottin'' / ''The Blonde Goddess''; ''A Woman for the Cannibals''; ''Barbarian Goddess''
|-
| ''[[We're Going to Eat You]]'' || [[Tsui Hark]] || 1980 || ''Diyu wu Men'' 
|-
| ''[[Zombie Holocaust]]'' || [[Marino Girolami]] || 1980 || ''Zombi Holocaust''; ''Zombie 3''; ''Zombi 3''; ''Queen of the Cannibals''; ''Doctor Butcher, M.D. (Medical Deviate)''
|-
| ''[[Cannibal Ferox]]'' || [[Umberto Lenzi]] || 1981 || ''Make Them Die Slowly''; ''Woman from Deep River''
|-
| ''[[Cannibal Terror]]'' || Alain Deruelle || 1981 || |''Terreur Caníbal'' (contains stock footage from Jesus Franco's ''Mondo Cannibale'')
|-
| ''[[Cut and Run (film)|Cut and Run]]'' || [[Ruggero Deodato]] || 1985 || ''Inferno in diretta'' / ''Hell...Live!'';  ''Amazonia''
|-
| ''[[Massacre in Dinosaur Valley]]'' || Michele Massimo Tarantini || 1985 || ''Nudo e Selvaggio'' / ''Naked and Savage''; ''Cannibal Ferox 2''
|-
| ''[[White Slave (film)|White Slave]]'' || [[Mario Gariazzo]] || 1985 ||  ''Schiave Bianche: Violenza in Amazzonia'' / ''White Slave: Violence in Amazonia''; ''Amazonia: The Catherine Miles Story''; ''Cannibal Holocaust 2: The Catherine Miles Story''
|-
| ''[[Natura contro]]'' || Antonio Climati || 1988 || ''Against Nature''; ''The Green Inferno''; ''Cannibal Holocaust II''
|}

== Censorship ==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2022}}
Because of the content, the cannibal genre is one of the most controversial genres of film. Many of the films were once banned in the U.K. and Australia and most were forced to be edited before public display. Several are still banned in countries all around the world. Only three films of the genre (''Schiave Bianche: Violenza in Amazzonia'', ''Ultimo mondo cannibale'' and ''Zombie Holocaust'') have been rated R by the [[MPAA]] for the edited version (the R rating for ''Zombie Holocaust'' has since been surrendered, and the film is now unrated in the United States).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mpaa.org | title=Motion Picture Association of America | publisher=Motion Picture Association of America | access-date=2006-09-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0079788/ | title=Zombi Holocaust | website=Internet Movie Database | access-date=2006-09-29}}</ref>

The most controversial aspects of the genre include the real killing of animals and graphic scenes of rape and other [[sexual violence]] being present in many cannibal films.

== ''Cannibal Holocaust'' ==
The most controversial and most infamous movie of the genre was ''[[Cannibal Holocaust]]''. Ten days after the premiere in [[Milan]], the film was seized by Italian authorities and director [[Ruggero Deodato]] was arrested on the belief that his film was a real [[snuff film]]. Facing life in prison, Deodato was able to bring all the actors onto a television show and demonstrated in court how some of the special effects were accomplished. The charges were dropped, but because of the still extremely explicit content, the courts still banned the film because of the real cruelty towards animals. Deodato was ultimately held on charges of obscenity and animal violence. Four years later, in 1984, Deodato was able to overturn the courts' rulings and the film was unbanned.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fringeunderground.com/snuff.html | title=Final Cuts: The History of Snuff Films | publisher=Fringe Underground | access-date=2006-09-29}}</ref><ref name=IMDb>{{cite web | url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078935/ | title=Cannibal Holocaust (1980) | website=Internet Movie Database | access-date=2006-09-29}}</ref> Ironically, that same year, the [[United Kingdom]], [[Norway]], [[Finland]], and [[Australia]] banned ''Cannibal Holocaust''; all four have since repealed the ban, though the U.K. version has several minutes of edits.<ref name="IMDb" /> It is sometimes claimed that ''Cannibal Holocaust'' is still banned in over 50 countries worldwide, though this can only be verified for a handful of nations. In 2006, ''Cannibal Holocaust'' made ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]''{{'}}s Top 25 Most Controversial Movies of All-Time list, landing at number 20.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://ew.com/gallery/25-most-controversial-movies-ever/?slide=294258#294258 | title=Entertainment Weekly's EW.com | magazine=Entertainment Weekly | access-date=2006-09-29}}</ref>

== Video nasty ==
Several of the films landed on the U.K.'s infamous [[video nasty]] list. They are:

*''[[Man from the Deep River|Man from Deep River]]'' (1972)<ref name="Nolong">No longer banned in the U.K., but must be heavily edited before display or release.</ref>
*''[[The Mountain of the Cannibal God]]'' (1978) <ref name="Nolong"/>
*''[[Cannibal Holocaust]]'' (1980)<ref name="Nolong"/>
*''[[Devil Hunter (film)|Devil Hunter]]'' (1980) <ref>Banned in the U.K.</ref>
*''[[Cannibal Ferox]]'' (1981)<ref name="Nolong"/>
*''[[Cannibal Terror]]'' (1981)<ref>No longer banned in the U.K. and can be shown unedited.</ref>

==See also==

* [[Cannibalism in literature]]
* [[Cannibalism in popular culture]]
* [[Extreme cinema]]
* [[Found footage (film technique)|Found footage]]
* [[Splat Pack]]

== References ==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
* Book (French) ''Les mondes cannibales du cinéma italien ... d'Umberto Lenzi à Ruggero Deodato, Daniel Bastié'', ed. Ménadès, 2019. {{ISBN|978-2960226218}}

{{Exploitation film}}
{{film genres}}
{{Italian film genres}}
{{Horror fiction}}
{{Horror film}}

{{Cannibalism}}

[[Category:Cannibal-boom films| ]]
[[Category:Exploitation films]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Italian films by genre]]
[[Category:Ethnic and racial stereotypes]]
[[Category:Obscenity controversies in film]]
[[Category:Films about cannibalism]]
[[Category:1970s in film]]
[[Category:1980s in film]]

{{Wikipedia attribution|original_title=Cannibal film|access_date=2026-02-28}}